Monte Alban - Capital City of the Zapotec Civilization

Monte Albà ¡n is the name of the ruins of an ancient capital city, located in a strange place: on the summit and shoulders of a very high, very steep hill in the middle of the semiarid valley of Oaxaca, in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. One of the most well-studied archaeological sites in the Americas, Monte Alban was the capital of the Zapotec culture from 500 B.C.E. to 700 C.E., reaching a peak population of over 16,500 between 300–500 C.E. The Zapotecs were maize farmers, and made distinctive pottery vessels; they traded with other civilizations in Mesoamerica including Teotihuacan and the Mixtec culture, and perhaps the classic period Maya civilization. They had a market system, for the distribution of goods into the cities, and like many Mesoamerican civilizations, built ball courts for playing ritual games with rubber balls. Chronology 900–1300 C.E. (Epiclassic/Early Postclassic, Monte Albà ¡n IV), Monte Alban collapses about 900 C.E., Oaxaca Valley with a more dispersed settlement500–900 C.E. (Late Classic, Monte Albà ¡n IIIB), slow decline of Monte Alban, as it and other cities are established as independent city-states, the influx of Mixtec groups into the valley250–500 C.E. (Early Classic period, Monte Albà ¡n IIIA), Golden Age of Monte Alban, architecture in the main plaza formalized; Oaxaca barrio established at Teotihuacan150 B.C.E.–250 C.E. (Terminal Formative, Monte Albà ¡n II), unrest in the valley, rise of the Zapotec state with the center at Monte Albà ¡n, city covered about 416 hectares (1,027 acres), with a population of 14,500500–150 B.C.E. (Late Formative, Monte Alban I), Oaxaca valley integrated as a single political entity, city increased to 442 ha (1,092 ac), and population of 17,000, well beyond its ability to feed itself500 B.C.E. (Middle Formative), Mont e Alban founded by paramount rulers from San Jose Mogote and others in the Etla Valley, site covers about 324 ha (800 ac), population of about 5,000 people The earliest city associated with the Zapotec culture was San Josà © Mogotà ©, in the Etla arm of the Oaxaca Valley and founded about 1600-1400 B.C.E. Archaeological evidence suggests that conflicts arose in San Josà © Mogotà © and other communities in the Etla valley, and that city was abandoned about 500 B.C.E., at the same time that Monte Albà ¡n was founded. Founding Monte Alban The Zapotecs built their new capital city in a strange place, probably partly as a defensive move resulting from unrest in the valley. The location in the valley of Oaxaca is on the top of a tall mountain far above and in the middle of three populous valley arms. Monte Alban was far from the nearest water, 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) away and 400 meters (1,300 feet) above, as well as any agricultural fields that would have supported it. Chances are that Monte Albans residential population was not permanently located here.   A city located so far away from the major population it serves is called a disembedded capital, and Monte Albà ¡n is one of the very few disembedded capitals known in the ancient world. The reason the founders of San Jose moved their city to the top of the hill may have included defense, but perhaps also a bit of public relations—its structures can be seen in many places from the valley arms. Rise and Fall Monte Albans golden age corresponds with the Maya Classic Period, when the city grew,  and maintained trade and political relationships with many regional and coastal territories. Expansionist trade relationships included Teotihuacan, where people born in the Oaxaca valley took up residence in a neighborhood, one of several ethnic barrios in that city. Zapotec cultural influences have been noted in Early Classic Puebla sites east of modern-day Mexico City and as far as the gulf coast state of Veracruz, although direct evidence for Oaxacan people living in those locations has not as yet been identified. The power centralization at Monte Alban decreased during the Classic period when an influx of Mixtec populations arrived. Several regional centers such as Lambityeco, Jalieza, Mitla, and Dainzà º-Macuilxà ³chitl rose to become independent city-states by the Late Classic/Early Postclassic periods. None of these matched Monte Albans size at its height. Monumental Architecture at Monte Alban The site of Monte Albà ¡n has several memorable extant architectural features, including pyramids, thousands of agricultural terraces, and long deep stone staircases. Also still to be seen today are Los Danzantes, over 300 stone slabs carved between 350–200 B.C.E., featuring life-sized figures which appear to be portraits of slain war captives. Building J, interpreted by some scholars as an astronomical observatory, is a very odd structure indeed, with no right angles on the exterior building—its shape may have been intended to represent an arrow point—and a maze of narrow tunnels in the interior. Monte Albà ¡ns Excavators and Visitors Excavations at Monte Albà ¡n have been conducted by Mexican archaeologists Jorge Acosta, Alfonso Caso, and Ignacio Bernal, supplemented by surveys of the Valley of Oaxaca by US archaeologists Kent Flannery, Richard Blanton, Stephen Kowalewski, Gary Feinman, Laura Finsten, and Linda Nicholas. Recent studies include bioarchaeological analysis of skeletal materials, as well as an emphasis on the collapse of Monte Alban and the Late Classic reorganization of the Oaxaca Valley into independent city-states. Today the site awes visitors, with its enormous rectangular plaza with pyramid platforms on the east and west sides. Massive pyramid structures mark the north and south sides of the plaza, and the mysterious Building J lies near its center. Monte Alban was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1987.   Sources Cucina A, Edgar H, and Ragsdale C. 2017. Oaxaca and its neighbors in Prehispanic times: Population movements from the perspective of dental morphological traits. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 13:751-758.ï » ¿Faulseit RK. 2012. State collapse and household resilience in the Oaxaca Valley of Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 23(4):401-425.Feinman G, and Nicholas LM. 2015. After Monte Alban in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca: A reassessment. In: Faulseit RK, editor. Beyond Collapse: Archaeological Perspectives on Resilience, Revitalization, and Transformation in Complex Societies. Carbondale: Southern Illinios University Press. p 43-69.Higelin Ponce de Leà ³n R, and Hepp GD. 2017. Talking with the dead from southern Mexico: Tracing bioarchaeological foundations and new perspectives in Oaxaca. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 13:697-702.Redmond EM, and Spencer CS. 2012. Chiefdoms at the threshold: The competitive origins of the primary state. Journal of Anthropologi cal Archaeology 31(1):22-37.

A Research Study On Aquatic Therapy - 1299 Words

two months or five times/week. The active group showed huge improvements in decreased disability and back pain, improved body composition, increased the quality of life and fitness level especially with the two-month aquatic therapy group.7 The studies both showed that aquatic therapy can help people with low back pain to strengthen their lower back muscles, move their low back more, and is a great pain relief having water on their back, and also less weight bearing than on land. The fourth thing aquatic therapy can help with is a neurological disorders/conditions. Neurological disorder/conditions include multiple sclerosis, Parkinson, cancer, cervical dystonia, hereditary spastic paraparesis, cervical dystonia, poliomyelitis, brain injury, and spinal cord injury. Gait speed and dynamic balance are a problem a lot of people with neurological disorder/conditions have. Aquatic therapy is one tool to help these people with gait and dynamic balance. There was a study done that took 116 articles that dealt with aquatic therapy and neurological disorders/conditions and picked twenty of those articles. The Black and Downs Scale was used to test the methodological quality. Three non-randomized studies, two RCTs, and three before-and-after studies proved aquatic therapy increases the dynamic balance in participants with neurological disorders. Two before-and-after tests and one RCT proved gait speed after aquatic therapy. My point and the study came to conclude that a quaticShow MoreRelatedAquatic Therapy : A Therapy Essay1325 Words   |  6 Pages Introduction: Aquatic therapy is a therapy that is done on water instead of land. Aquatic therapy can include water weights, exercises in the water, and water aerobics. Some programs will combine both land and water exercises, and other just water exercises. Aquatic therapy takes the weight off people so people are not bearing all their body weight like they are on land. 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Biological And Nuclear Weapons Essay Research Paper free essay sample

Biological And Nuclear Weapons Essay, Research Paper Most people today believe that the universe is a better topographic point than it was 20 to 30 old ages ago. But I, on the other manus, believe that the universe is going a really unsafe topographic point. Even though the universe # 8217 ; s world powers condemn atomic and biological warfare, I believe that the following millenary will convey a war that will do them alter their beliefs toward arms of mass devastation. There are many states with these arms. # 8220 ; For the past several old ages, U.S. authorities functionaries noted that there are at least 10 states known to hold biological warfare programs. # 8221 ; There are besides another 12 states that possess atomic arms. Other states are seeking to develop such arms. Some of these states pay for the technological secrets or for the existent ingredients for these arms. One such instance is that of Libyan dictator Muammar el-Qaddafi, who # 8220 ; was so fixated by the dream of having atomic bombs that he allegedly offered to pay India the equivalent of its national debt- about $ 18 billion for the technology. # 8221 ; But India refused to sell Qaddafi its engineering. Some of the states that are suspected of holding biological warfare plans are unfriendly toward the U.S. Some of these states are located in the Middle East and some are signers to the Biological Weapons Convention. This 1972 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, prohibited its signers from possessing or using such arms. This possess a important menace to the U.S. and all the other states who hold scores with the 1s who have biological warfare plans. States get biological plans because they view it as an # 8220 ; cheap path to acquisition of a arm of mass destruction. # 8221 ; Biological arms are frequently called a # 8220 ; hapless adult male # 8217 ; s atomic bomb. # 8221 ; Another ground why states get these arms is because they # 8220 ; desire to act upon the political-military computations of possible antagonists, and to frighten enemy states. They want the universe to acknowledge them as a military power and that they can destruct an full state with their arms. These arms are really destructive. The atomic bombs of today are about eight to forty times greater than the bomb detonated on Hiroshima. The Hiroshima blast killed between 70,000 to 100,000 people immediately. A biological agent can do a similar sum of deceases ; it all depends on how good the state is prepared to descry the spread of the sources, and how populated the country is.In 3rd universe states, for illustration, the decease toll could be greater because of the fact that they don # 8217 ; t have the necessary medical equipment to halt the spread of sources and viruses. These arms are ready to be used at any clip. With recent struggles between Iraq and the U.S. Britain, and besides India and Pakistan, the menace of unleashing the power of such a arm has increased greatly. In the past decennaries, India and Pakistan have come near on three occasions to get downing a atomic war. Some jobs between states are high and can do war when the ill will gets excessively high to manage. The favourite biological arms of states with biological arms are Anthrax, Botulinum, Clostridium and ricin. These agents normally kill the victims within a twenty-four hours or two after it has come into contact with its host. Surprisingly plenty, get downing civilizations for these micro-organisms are easy found in most countries. These arms are effectual because the atoms remain suspended in the ambiance for a long adequate period of clip to infect big Numberss of people. Whenever these arms are used, they have to make up ones mind how the arms will get at their mark. Countries utilizing these arms use missiles to present the micro-organism. A terrorist group would differ by really taking the biological agents to their mark and let go ofing it in the unfastened, so people-as well as the wind-will spread the biological agents. Terrorism is likely the factor that is the key to the beginning of the following war. # 8220 ; Small states, even subnational terrorist groups have the ability to bring down mass devastation upon their enemies. # 8221 ; One such group is Osama bin Laden # 8217 ; s terrorist group who has adequate money to back up his actions. This group besides asks states to house his group. The U.S. has acknowledged that some states suspected of prosecuting biological warfare plans are known patrons of terrorist act. One such terrorist act that could hold been worse was the bombardment at the World Trade Center in New York. Had the bombers used a atomic arm with Pu, both constructions would hold had to be torn down and buried as radioactive waste. This is because Pu has a half life of 24,000 years-that # 8217 ; s the clip it takes for half it to disintegrate. Some people believe that this will non go on because there are pacts that prohibition biological orders and ask states to cut down the sum of their atomic arms. They besides believe organisations such as the U.N. will halt a possible war from get downing. But there are states who will non take advice signifier anyone and will make what they think is best. These types of arms are going widely available to more states and even terrorist groups. So far, no state has had to fall back to utilizing a atomic work stoppage in war. With so many jobs between states these yearss, its merely a affair of clip before these arms are to set to utilize. That # 8217 ; s why I believe that states who condemned the usage of these arms will alter their positions and finally utilize them. 344

The Crucible The Plot free essay sample

The overall message of Arthur Miller’s play, The Crucible, is that when uncontrolled hysteria is combined with ignorance, the outcome is tragic. While Miller offers his audience some comic dialogue to soften the events it does not mask the horrifying reality of the witch hunt and its aftermath. Rather, the humorous insights serve to reveal the simplicity and innocence of people living rustic lives in a God-fearing community. Several characters, Paris and Hale, Mary Warren and John Proctor, provide the audience with some comic dialogue, and Giles Corey is the most amusing character of them all. The hysteria which abounded in Salem allowed small, inconsequential, even comic, events to form the basis of sinister fabrications. Farmers who were envious of the area of land owned by others, or who craved a remedy for imagined wrongs, took the opportunity to bear false witness. Seemingly comic situations, such as Mary Warren reporting to the Court that when she did not give the beggar woman, Goody Osborn, bread and a cup of cider, she mumbled, had tragic outcomes. We will write a custom essay sample on The Crucible The Plot or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Martha Corey was arrested because a pig she sold to a farmer had died a short time after he took delivery of it. At the time Martha had said to him, Walcott if you havent the wit to feed a pig properly, youll not live to own many. Although that was four or five years earlier, the farmer told the Court that Martha had bewitched all subsequent pigs and caused them to die also. Giles Corey innocently asks the Reverend Hale why he could not say his prayers when his wife was in the room reading books. Later, after Martha Corey was arrested, he tried to clarify his point: I never said my wife were a witch, Mr Hale, I only said she were reading books. When Reverend Paris implied that he should be paid more than sixty pounds a year (with six dollars extra for firewood), because he was a graduate of Harvard College , Giles quickly replies Aye, and well instructed in arithmetic. Many lies are told, and believed; but the irony is, of course, that neither the telling of truths nor the refusal to betray a confidence, protects the innocent in the overtly Christian community of Salem. John Proctor admits to the Court that he has known Abigail Williams because he wants to protect his wife, Elizabeth, from hanging. However, when she fails to say that John is an adulterer, the Court disregards his truth, Abigail Williams remains free to continue on with her vengeful lies, and he is taken into custody. Giles Corey not only possesses wit and humour, he is also loyal. He dies a slow, horrible death because he fails to reveal the source of his knowledge that The day Putnams daughter cried out on Jacobs, (Putnam) said shed given him a fair gift of land. He does not give the name because he says Hell lay in jail if I give his name. There is, among the characters of the play, a simple honesty and a moral way of being which leads to tragedy. While readers will laugh at Mary Warren telling her employer, John Proctor, that she will go to bed when she wishes as she is eighteen and a woman, however single, and note with the amusement the pompous certainty of the Reverend Hale when we first meet him laden with books, Here is the invisible world caught, defined, and calculated. They will also find the ignorance and cunning pretence of some characters deeply disturbing and horrifyingly tragic. While Miller may have wished to ease our sorrow at the hysterical, deadly lies told by the children of Salem with some comic moments, the tragic events of the play overrule them all.